Tech Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Tech Article - Essay Example The current market price for RFID tags is between 20 and 40 cents. A company that is currently utilizing RFID tags to improve its supply chain is Wal-Mart Inc. Wal-Mart is the world largest retailer and biggest employer. The use of RFID has allowed Wal-Mart to improve its warehouse logistics. For example Wal-Mart is using RFID technology to scan tags on products as pallets are moved through a dock or scanning cases on high shelves in a warehouse (Rfidjournal). Companies can also use the technology to track the movement of merchandise as it is moved by trucking companies. The auto-id system developed for use in RFID tags must be open source so that there won’t be any compatibility issues. A good system will use the internet to connect users to the information in real time. As the cost of RFID continues to decrease its application will become the new standard in the packaging industry. Work Cited Page Rfidjournal.com. 2011. â€Å"What is RFID?’’ RFID Journal. 1 Ma rch 2011. Wordiq.com. 2010. â€Å"RFID- Definition.† 1 March 2011.

Systematic Research

Systematic Research Introduction This report is to critical review a journal article, titled as ‘The role of management characteristics in the internationalisation of SMEs by Karise Hutchinson and Barry Quinn, School of Business, Retail and Financial Services, (university of Ulster, Colearine. UK) and Nicholas Alexander, Centre for research in Marketting, School of management and Business, (University of Whales, Aberystwyth, UK). The research was published in International Journal of Small Business and Enterprises Development, Vol. 13, No. 4, 2006. According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003), the research is defined as â€Å"something people undertake in order to find out things in the systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge†, Ghauri Gronhaug (2002) in addition to it ‘Systematic Research it is based on logics and not relied on just beliefs (quoted in Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003). For any type of research appropriate initial planning should be done for reaching expectation of the research objective. (Hague Jackson, 1996). So according to this research journal will be analyse in the report in orders to review that authors have conducted the research systematically by focusing on below key components: 1) Project Rationale 2) Literature Review 3) Research Paradigm Design 4) Research Methods 5) Research Results Presentation Project Rationale Research Rationale According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003), while choosing any research topic or idea should be connected with ‘rational thinking and ‘creative thinking. In the given article the authors Hutchinson et. al (2006) have focus on internationalisation of SMEs in U.K retail sector. In this article author main focus on the evidence gathered from 9 establish international retail SMEs originating from the UK retail sector by Hutchinson et al. (2005). In this research the author have mentioned reviews of different author from different literature in relating to the internationalisation of SMEs. In supporting their literature review, author has taken the evidence of 9 established international retail SMEs companies case study within UK retail sector. In this article manager is presented as their main role because of the direct responsibility in decision making for SMEs, Also he is directly responsible for every decision. This article is highlighted the enlarging form of theor etical framework of Hutchinson et al. (2005). In the given article retailing is important for every country in between their production and consumption. If we go up in the past report from the last several years UK retail sector is keep growing and every year there is an increment of 15% from the next five years till 2011. (www.prospects.ac.uk). In the article the author states that international expansion is very important for every firm who deals in limited geographic area with their small financial base. Further study has also been recommended by many authors in internationalisation of SMEs like Iben (2003), Moini (1995). Moreover, this study is also highlighted the characteristics of founder and export relating decision in small firms Hutchinson et. al (2006). In this study multiple case approaches in argument to s single case used in their result, also the use of in-depth study can be seen in this article . For gathering the data author have used qualitative techniques in his research where the author has used face- to -face semi -structured interviews with open- ended questions from the relevant person, company reports, and archival information. For secondary data author have used important evidence, which were analysed on the basis of the study. Hutchinson et. al (2006). Research Aims and Objectives Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2003) for every research researcher aim and objective should be clear at the same time it should provide purpose and direction of the research without setting aim and objective will divert the researcher from their study. The authors however showed the research aims and objectives in the research journal that can be summarised by the following: Aim: The aim of this study is to specifically explore the role of management characteristics in the internationalisation of SMEs Hutchinson et. al (2006). In order to reach his aim author have set the following objective: To investigate the importance and impact of objective and subjective factor in decision making in the internationalisation of SMEs. To explore the business skill, positive attitude to risk and the vision of the entrepreneur, ability to network can be useful valid indicators for the internationalisation of SMEs or not. To explain how the importance of decision maker in internationalisation of SMEs. . LITERATURE REVIEW : In this article author have conducted the literature review mostly from â€Å"secondary literature sources† i.e books, journals, article also ‘primary literature source from face-to-face interviews with relevant person, open-ended semi-structured approach, analysing their company report. Author has used all the relevant data, which is derived from the evidence of case study in UK retail sector. Author has done beautifully research, which is directly link up with their key words. This article clearly present the different reviews of many writers for internationalisation of SMEs. Also author has taken the help of previous research by Hutchinson et al(2005) and present their result in finding the role of objective and subjective factors in the internationalisation of SMEs. This article has presented some example [(such as The Body Shop (Anita Roddick), Virgin (Richard Branson), Laure Ashley (Laura and Bernard Ashley)] of people who have positive risk taking attitude which is important factor in globalisation of SMEs Hutchinson et. al (2006). Critical Literature Review Literature Review is important because it helps the researcher itself to make his research more clear and understandable in better way. For this purpose the researcher first needs to justify to himself that the study is worth conducting. Review of existing body of literature does precisely that. In addition to it, the researchers should have a clear cut idea what he wants to do achieve in his research (Remenyi, Williams, Money Swartz, 1998). By the term ‘critically analyse the literature review, Dee (2000) suggests that researcher should refer to work by 1) accepted experts or literature in that field, 2) select both supportive and unsupportive literature in a logical manner to the research area, 3) judge the importance of the literature by differentiating clearly between fact and opinion (quoted in Saunders, Lewis Thornhill, 2003). Strong Points By Critical Literature Review: By using different literature from different variety of sources, which make this research more understandable and clear towards the aim of the study. By indication of the key word in introduction parts is fruitful and helpful in exploring the same topic also at the same time study make it clear that the author has doing his research with in their related topic. By using the strong points of case study that the importance of manager in decision making in the internationalisation of SMEs Hutchinson et. al (2006). Weak points: In the given article literature used by the author is not up-to date most of the time article referred for the research are old. In the given article author for his research has used previous research of the different authors, old journals, articles are very limited source in supporting their research. He could have come up with more authors views for attaining their objective or make this study more effective. The author have selected for his research 17 different international retail SMEs out of which he has taken only the evidence of 9 international SMEs in his research Hutchinson et. al (2006). Research Paradigm Design Research Paradigm According to Remenyi, Williams, Money Swartz (1998) Research Paradigm it is of 4 types categories. First is Epistemology which focuses on the relationship between enquirer and known, second is Ontology which focuses on humanity and social reality. Third is Human Nature which focuses on human nature and environmental and last is Methodology which focuses on approaches to evidence collection. According to the article author have used Epistemology as research paradigm for his research. The reason behind is author has put focus on how does the decision of manager important in globalisation of SMEs. Moreover, to this by conduction face-to-face interviews, open-ended questions with relevant person is fully link in between the enquirer and known from this points research is interpretive (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 1989). Research Design A research design is a framework for conducting a research project as it contains the step-by-step procedure for obtaining important information to structure research problem. (Malhotra and brisks, 2007). Research design it contained many components like case study, experiments, survey, cross sectional studies, longitudinal studies, explanatory studies, descriptive studies, action research, ethnography, and grounded theory (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003). In the referred article author collected the data mainly from secondary source of strong points of evidence of case study, also from books, journals and expertise in order to find out the importance of 5 factors in the success and development of internationalisation of SMEs. Moreover, to reaching his aims he applied ‘Exploratory, Descriptive and Explanatory Studies in research design. According to SaundersLewis and Thornhill (2003) ‘Exploratory Studies is useful for clarifying and exploring the perception in that research from the way of different literature, by taking advices and help form experts. For attaining the aim of this research author identifies the role of manager in decision-making in development also refer different books of many authors. ‘Explanatory Studies means a situation to indentify the relationship between their variables. In this regard author has mentioned a meaning full title to their work, which shows that research in done in international S MEs in retail sector Hutchinson et. al (2006). Research Approach Deductive and Inductive are two types of approaches. According to Carson et al. (2005) deductive approach is based on the theoretical structure development for testing with statistical methods. This approach allows to the researcher to test the theory by observation or survey. While inductive approach focus on the shift of theory to data observation which sufficient sample size and validity of data. (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003). In this study author has used deductive approach because researchers has beautifully research with in their keyword also on the basis of evidence case study, by using exploratory study to connect with literature review in searching the data whether the business skills, positive risk attitude, ability to network, vision of the entrepreneur are factors in globalisations of SMEs. In addition to it author has clearly present different views of many authors thats makes this research more sensible Hutchinson et. al (2006). Research Methodology Research Strategy According to Creswell (2003) research strategy is of three types; Qualitative Approach, Quantitative Approach and Mixed Methods Approach, as all these approaches are different from each other for collecting data, for getting results and data analysis. In this article the researcher for reaching their objectives employed Mixed Methods Approach as research strategy as the researcher collected both quantitative and qualitative data. For Qualitative approach author have used several authors opinions, previous research report, face-to face interviews, open-ended semi-structured questionnaire in drawing their conclusion. For Quantitative approach researcher has taken 9 establish international SMEs case study Hutchinson et. al (2006). Data Collection Methods: According to the McDaniel and Gate (2001) there are two ways of collecting the data; 1) Primary Data: In this data is collected for the first time for the research such as observations, experimentation and survey research. 2) Secondary Data: It is the previously researched data collected from different types of sources such as, journals, internet database, company report or website or any researcher report etc. In this author has mainly use secondary data for gathering information from books, journals, previously and report on the same topic. Author also used evidence of establish international SMEs case study. Strength Weakness of Research Methodology: In the article the researcher for doing the research used Deductive approach as the research approach, for research design used Exploratory, Descriptive and Explanatory Studies, Qualitative research as research strategy and for collection of the data used secondary data for conducting the research. There are some strength and weakness in the research, which are as follows: Strong points: By using in-depth case study, multiple case approach make more understandable in achieving their aim and objectives of this research. Moreover, this study is in the context of small and medium size firm SMEs, which focus on aim of the study. Beautifully present the domestic and international activities of all 9 companies by dividing into 4 different retail sectors also put emphasis on formal contact because to avoid small size firm with in strange market. In the given article author have clearly mentioned the expand work of Hutichinson et al. (2005). In addition to it author has beautifully identify the gap in the study. Given study clears that both formal and informal contact is necessary for internationalisation of SMEs by using this contact he could have done it better or very easy in setting up firm branch overseas Hutchinson et. al (2006). Weak points: By using less quantitative and objective technique can be seen in this article. So we can say that there is lack of real information. In secondary research he could have done something more to add the data in his research to make his research relevant in terms of if someone read this article then he can easily understand the result derive from secondary data is relevant by using proper data. From the sample of 17 companies choosing only 9 established international retail SMEs whose sale turnover is less then 25 millions that make this research more difficult in drawing their result or not realistic. By using uneven samples categories in conducting their research such as small, medium and large, if he want to do research in my viewpoint he could have to choose one categories with one sector thats makes easy or clearer in understanding. None of the sample is similar to anyone, so on this basis it clears that the result arrive from research is not so relevant. If the make the sample of 17 internationalised companies then study prove to be more relevant. Also in primary research author he could have come up with more face-to face interviews, with more questioners so that the conclusion can draw easily Hutchinson et. al (2006). RESULT AND PRESENTATION Relative Value and Context result In this article authors research result has appropriate link to the key words of the topic that has been mentioned in the literature review by researcher. In the result author has successfully proposed their study in different section from their domestic turnover wise which provides total description for both domestic and international activities of all 9 companies and it is fully interpretive in nature. In addition to it author has clearly relate to objective managerial characteristics to decision maker ability, global experience and business skills, also choices of choosing foreign market defers from case to case in the expansion of internationalisation of SMEs. This study proves that the pivotal role of manager in the internationalisation of SMEs in UK retail sector. In this study author has also clear the importance role of both formal and informal contact are important factors in the early expansion and development of business overseas. Also author has taken uneven sample of com panies that some company has only two branches in overseas and some having more then 30 branch worldwide. All the 9 companies taken by author are in the favour of positive decision in the overall business performance. This research successfully proves the close relationship between characteristics of decision maker and inclination to initiate and develop international activity Moreover, after reaching the result author has also given implication for manger for both public and private support organisation. By giving importance to customer service which proves the importance of business skill in retailing and branding this asserts the importance of management knowledge of the international retail business environment Hutchinson et. al (2006). Presentation Structures In the referred article author presented very beautifully structure to his article so that it is easy to clear the main aim and objective of this research and after that he presented step-by-step link up with research topic and his key words that already clearly mentioned by researcher in the abstract part. In presenting all reviews of different authors turn his study in more realistic way then moved to explaining the objective and subjective factors in decision making in internationalisation of SMEs then gave their conclusion. For making his research more effective and authentic author has taken the help of good examples and with good arguments. In the given article researcher has used the strong points of evidence of case study that makes study more effective and easy to understand Hutchinson et. al (2006). CONCLUSION After completed critically analysis in this research, in my viewpoint this research gave us a lot of knowledge about the importance of decision maters in internationalisation of SMEs. Moreover, author has also given the implication for manager in both public and private support companies. He has also mentioned at what certain both formal and informal contact matters when company initially opening their firm in overseas. Moreover, to this results are very general. By making his research more effective he could have compare more then one sector but still this study is interesting and need a lot to do in further research. Author has beautifully identified the gap of the study. By adding regression analysis, graphs or charts or some other useful tool attached to he appendix in finding the result to get the idea easily and clearly Hutchinson et. al (2006). Bibliography Carson, D et.al (2005) Qualitative Marketing Research. London, SAGE Publications Ltd. Creswell, J., W. (2003), ‘Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd ed., California: SAGE Publications Ltd. Malhotra, N. and Birks, D. (2007), ‘Marketing Research: An applied approach. 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, Financial times. McDaniel, C. Gate, R. (2001), ‘Marketing Research Essentials, 3rd ed., Ohio: South-Western College Publishing. Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A. Swartz, E. (1998), ‘Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. Thornhill, A. (2003), ‘Research Methods for Business Students, 3rd ed., Essex: Pearson Education Limited. http://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Explore_job_sectors/Retail/overview/p!egiLLL http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6TUuXQifwxoCpg=PA280lpg=PA280dq=any+books+on+internationalisation+of+sMEssource=blots=brYSpAWGAJsig=kh5oVONN4DAFAKze7rSioizjbnchl=enei=zj5wSuTZOMKZjAeLx7GSBQsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=9 Quinn, B., Hutchinson, K. and Alexander, N. (1998), ‘The role of management characteristics in the internationalisation of SMEs :Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development Vol. 13 No. 4

Conflict in America :: essays research papers fc

Conflict in America Euthanasia, also known as assisted suicide is a growing conflict in America and the world. Many people turn to it because they feel it is a way to gain control over their life, or put an end to it. They want to terminate the pain and suffering. They do not want to become a burden to their family and/or society. They need an environment that will make them feel wanted and loved. The whole human race has one particular need in common, the feeling of belonging. Helping people in suicide does not convey compassion. The ill, the elderly, the depressed, and infants who are born with diseases are all at risk. Euthanasia is wrong because death should only be God’s decision, the process of dying is an important part of life and people should be cherished regardless of their physical condition. We are becoming a culture of death faster than we realize. Euthanasia, suicide, and abortion are the downfalls to our society. Do not believe that people can look at these situations and discuss them as "ethical" questions. Killing is killing no matter what the circumstances. Murder, suicide, euthanasia, abortion; they all lead to death, and death is not something that should be pre-meditated. Soon assisted-suicide will be just as popular as abortion, and we will have both types of clinics; what a comforting thought. Everyone has a conscience, and everyone who has participated in a suicide or abortion will be consumed by guilt one day. Too many different situations occur as a result of euthanasia. A terminally ill person will likely first seek the advice of a physician. Then there is the family involved; their feelings and values must also be considered. A situation that arises is that it is not always the decision of the person being killed. As in weather an ill person is in a coma, and has brain damage that is so bad the person is practically a vegetable. As one example in the case study of Jim Romney, 56, a retired school principle from Portland, was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig’s disease. People with this type of illness will barley ever live more than two years after being diagnosed with this type of disease. His physicians made it clear that the disease would destroy his body, by leaving his entire body paralyzed, but his mind would still continue to function.

The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world. More than two million people complete it annually in the world (Robbins & Barnwell, 2008). The reliability of the MBTI instrument for management is supported by over fifty years of research and use, proving to be a reliable tool for management and human resource development, both personal and career counselling, and even for team-building and improving communication. Comprising 100 personality tests, it assesses how people act and feel in various situations (Michael & William, 2009). MBTI test results present an individual’s personality preferences thus helping individuals better understand themselves and assisting them in making career choices. Possible applications for the MBTI include communication, conflict resolution, personal growth and development, decision making and problem solving (Thompson, 2010, p19). Also the MBTI helps management to encourage groups of individuals to learn about themselves, each other, and better organize group resources to achieve group goals. On the basis of the answers individuals give to the test, the MBTI classifies individuals into sixteen unique personality based on four dimensions (Robins, 2009). They are Extroverted or Introverted (E or I), Sensing or Intuitive (S or N), Thinking or Feeling (T or F), and Judging or Perceiving (J or P). Extroverted-Introverted – method of functioning. Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable and assertive, they tend to act, then reflect, and then act again to gather information and reflect on it before arriving at a decision. Introverts are quiet and shy, prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again to discuss possible alternatives before arriving at a decision (Michael & William, 2009) Sensing-Intuitive – how individuals take in information. Individuals who are sensing are more likely focus on detail and what is actually present, are practical and prefer routine and order. They always trust their xperience and focus on what is real here and now. By contrast, individuals who prefer intuition rely on unconscious processes and tend to trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, to focus more on implications and inferences, to look at the â€Å"big picture† to gather information (Robins, 2009). Thinking-Feeling – how individuals make decision. Those who prefer thinking are more logical, causa l, and more consistent in their perspective. They measure decision by what seems reasonable and tend to use an analytical approach to problem solving. Conversely, those who prefer feeling tend to introduce their own values and emotions into the decision making process. However, where situations differ, their value and emotion can be variable. Therefore, their decision-making is based on the situation and their emotional involvement in that situation (Mohammad, 2009). Judgment-perceiving – individual’s lifestyle. Judgment types desire control and prefer their worlds to be orderly, planned and scheduled – everything in its place. By contrast, those who are perception orientated prefer an open, flexible, and unstructured lifestyle (Michael & William, 2009). According to the research by McCare and John (2002) strong relation exists between individual personality and performance in teams. The four dimensions can classify individuals into sixteen personality type. ESTJs are the organisers in the team. They are realistic, practical and prefer order, like use reason and logic to handle problems. They have a natural head for business or group dynamics. Consequently, they like to organise and run activities (Carlopio & Andrewartha, 2008). INTJs are the monitors and the evaluators in the team. They usually have original minds and strongly focus on their own ideas and purposes. Additionally, they are critical, independent, determined and often stubborn. The ENTPs are conceptualisers. They are individualistic, versatile and focus on innovation. They are innovative in solving challenging problems, but may neglect routine assignments. According to the research, 13 business people who create super-successful firms such as Microsoft, Apple Computer, Sony, FedEX and Honda Motors found that all 13 were intuitive thinkers (Robins, 2009). This result is especially interesting because MBTI suggests only 5% of the population are intuitive thinkers. In addition, while more and more people are using MBTI in Australia today, simultaneously the number of users is starting to rise in some Asian countries as well (Henry, 2010). The MBTI is mainly used in organisations including banks, hospitals, IT firms, universities, emergency service, finance companies, MNC and even the Australian Defence Forces (Robins, 2009). The results from these organisations reveal that, in general, HR managers and educated managers tend to have higher intuition scores. On the contrary, manager in high regulated organisations such as the police, armed forces and financial management tend to have lower scores in intuition (Mohammad, 2009). Example At the beginning of my university life, I experienced course selection mistake. I chose accounting for my major simply because I thought I was good at mathematic. Unfortunately, I didn't understand my personality very well. After one semester, I realised accounting was not an appropriate subject for me. I’m not a conscientious person, I always leave my belongings around, often forget to put things back in their proper place and make a mess of everything, often being not well prepared before class. Further, I don't pay attention to details and frequently neglect routine assignments. Consequently, the formal demands of accounting are not suitable for me. However, having finished the MBTI test, I found I’m an ENTP type person, which â€Å"openness to experience† person. I’m always optimistic about life and even in a difficult environment, I regard new things as challenges and widening my experience, which means I don't give up readily. I don't perceive such things as failures and losses and am not upset by such events. Secondly, I’m an imaginative person. I have diverse interests. I like trying and exploring new things and challenging new environments, so I always look forward to discovering new things. Thirdly, I have excellent ideas, spend time reflecting on things, and constantly try to search for ways to improve my previous ideas (MBTI test). Consequently, I changed my major to Economics, a subject better suited to my personality. Recommendation Both managers and employees need to understand the benefits of using the MBTI (Michael & William, 2009). From the manager’s point of view, MBTI can improve management skills; enhance inter-organisation communication and developmental efforts. From the employee’s viewpoint, an understanding of individual’s personalities can help organisations reduce group conflict, improve work relations and team development, further achieve a positive work environment, and increase work-group performance and productivity (John, 2008). In addition, the more MBTI is appropriately used in an organisation, the more the management would see its value (Roselle, 2009). When the MBTI is used frequently in conjunction with other management skills, it helps individuals to gather the insight they need for personal growth and development, to achieve decision making and resolve problem skills, and to help groups better understand themselves and each other in a team environment and different situation (Peter & Garry, 2004). Finally, having gained the feedback from using the MBTI instrument, a careful analysis of the information helps in arriving at fresh policy decision. Belbin (2006) found that groups with mixed roles can be more productive than other groups. It means different personal and professional roles have their own characteristic; this can bring many benefits if a group contains a mixture of personality types, each type filling a particular role in the dynamics of the group. For instance, having completed the MBTI test, I understood myself very well, my personal characteristic, my strengths and my weaknesses. Consequently, a design group manager has invited me to join his group on the basis of my personal strengths, thus complementing the strengths of the group, all of us having previously done the MBTI test. I found we all have different group professional roles, Member â€Å"A† is always focused on the task, is highly motivated to achieve goals and influences group members to achieve goals more smoothly. Member â€Å"B† is a good listener and supporter, friendly to everyone, helps group member to resolve destructive conflicts, and facilitate group cooperation. Member â€Å"C† is an enthusiastic person who always encourages group members to explore new ideas and problem solving skills. As we talk in a comfortable environment, our group relationship has improved, leading us to communicate more with other group members. Thus our work-group performance and productivity have increased.

Brucellosis

Brucellosis, commonly known as Bangs disease, comes from the genus Brucella. Brucella is a highly contagious zoonosis contracted by the ingestion of unsterilized milk or meat products that are infected. It can also be contracted by the close contact with the animal secretions. Human to human transmission is rare but yet still possible by means of sexual contact or mother to child. Brucella is a small, gram-negative microbe that is non-motile and has non-spore forming rods. It functions as a facultative intercellular parasite that causes chronic disease and will usually persists for life.Human symptoms are recognized by profuse sweating and muscle and joint pain. Brucellosis has been recognized in animals and humans since the 19th century. Brucellosis, when first discovered, went by the name of Malta fever. It first came to the attention of British medical officers in Malta during the Crimean war in the mid 1850’s. The relationship between organisms and the disease was first es tablished in 1887 by Dr David Bruce. In 1897, Danish veterinarian Bernhard Bang isolated Brucella abortus as the agent â€Å"Bangs disease†.Maltese doctor and archeologist Sir Themistocles Zammit earned his knighthood for recognizing unpasteurized milk as the major source of the pathogen in 1905. The species of the Brucella, Brucella abortus, is the main cause of brucellosis in cattle and bison. The bacteria are shed from an animal around the time of calving or pregnancy. Once exposed, the likelihood the animal becoming infected is variable depending on age, pregnancy status, and the amount of bacteria the animal was exposed to. The most common signs in animals are incidences of abortion, arthritic joints, and retained afterbirth.There are primarily two main causes of abortion in animals. One is due to the build up of erythritol which promotes infections in the fetus and the placenta. The second is due to lack of anti-brucella activity in the amniotic fluid during pregnancy. Males can harbor the bacteria in reproductive tracts like the testicles, epididymides, and seminal vesicles. Dairy herds in the US are tested at least once a year with a Brucella milk ring test (BRT). Cows that are found to be infected are often killed and disposed of. US veterinarians are required to vaccinate calves, thereby reducing the chance of zoonotic transmission.This is referred to as a â€Å"calfhood† vaccination. Most cattle will receive a tattoo in the ear after receiving the vaccination. Canada declared their entire cattle herd brucellosis free on September 19th, 1985. Ring tested ended shortly after in April of 1999 but monitoring still continues in auction markets. The first US state-federal cooperative efforts toward eradication of brucellosis were put into effect in 1934. Brucellosis has infected Ireland for decades. Farmers and veterinarians were bothered by the disease from the interaction with the livestock.Ireland was declared free of the disease on July 1, 2009. Brendan Smith, Minister of Irelands agriculture, fisheries and food, quoted that the elimination of the disease from the country was â€Å"a landmark in the history of disease eradication in Ireland† Outbreaks of Brucella abortus and BSE in cattle, Cork RVL, 1990-2003. Along with livestock, dogs can also be infected by the genus Brucella. The species that affects dogs is Brucella canis. The disease is transmitted to other dogs though breeding and contact with aborted fetuses.The bacteria can harbor in the dogs genitals and lymphatic system and may also spread to the eyes, kidneys, and intervertebral discs. Systems in dogs consist of abortions in females and males show signs of scrotal inflammation and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles. One of the last remaining controversial hot spots for brucellosis is Yellowstone National Park in Montana and Wyoming. The bison and elk that roam free in and around Yellowstone are said to be the last remaining reservoirs for br ucellosis. A recent transmission from elk into cattle was recently reported in Idaho and Wyoming.Cattle, elk, and bison keep a fairly spacious distance from each other let alone interbreed with each other. So how did the disease spread in between the three different species? Yellowstone biologists observed that the disease was being spread by sharing the same foliage in a given area. An infected ungulate would come by, forage on the grasses and shrubs, and leave behind a layer of saliva and mucous on the uneaten plants. The next animal would come by and feed on the same grasses and shrubs and contract the disease through close contact.Although the disease would be ingested, the biologists believe that the disease what not acquired through the GI tract linings. Instead they believe the disease is absorbed into the body through the epithelial layers of the inner nasal canal and nasopharynx. With the animals nostrils being close to the plants while eating, it would be easy for the anim al to inhale some of the existing mucous from the other animals into their own nasal canal. The current controversy about the brucellosis spread is issue with the bison and elk from the Yellowstone herds possibly infecting the surrounding areas cattle herds.Ranchers pay up-words of 13 to 15 dollars per cow, twice a year to vaccinate for the brucellosis disease. They are required to vaccinate their entire herd before the herd goes to summer pasture and after they return. Some ranchers pay up to $20,000 every year for the brucellosis vaccines alone. This being said, the controversy isn’t the pay out for the vaccines every year, but because of the issue with the conservation of the bison and elk herds. The herds are usually situated on public lands and therefore are managed by the state and federal governments through hunting.This management is believed by some to not be effective enough to eliminate the chance of brucellosis transmission within herds. Along with cattle and othe r livestock being infected, there comes the possibility of transmission from the livestock to humans. The infection in humans is usually caused by the consumption of unpasteurized milk and cheeses that are made from the milk of and infected animal. Cattle are the biggest concern being the main source of meat and dairy products, but other livestock can also pass the disease. One particular are goats.Goats are commonly infected with the species Brucella melitensis. This disease is also passed by the consumption of the meats, milk, and cheeses consumed from this animal. Occupational exposure is a risk to lab workers, veterinarians, stockyard employees, and slaughterhouse workers. Some of the vaccines used for the livestock may also cause the disease in humans if accidentally injected. Once infected with the disease, it can induce inconstant fevers, profuse sweating, weakness, anemia, headaches, depression, and muscular, joint, and bodily pain.The duration of the disease can vary from a single week up to months and in some cases, years. The first stage is when septicemia occurs; this is followed by a triad of fevers, sweating, and migratory arthralgia and myalgia. If the disease goes untreated it may cause focalizations and become chronic. The focalization of the disease regularly occurs in the bones and joints and spondylodiscitis of the lumbar spine may occur. References: McLean DR, Russell N, Khan MY (October 1992). â€Å"Neurobrucellosis: clinical and therapeutic features†.Clin. Infect. Dis. (4): 582–90 Radostits, O. M. , C. C. Gay, D. C. Blood, and K. W. Hinchcliff. 2000. Veterinary Medicine, A textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses. Harcourt Publishers Limited, London, pp. 867–882. Wilkinson, Lise (1993). â€Å"†Brucellosis†Ã¢â‚¬ . in Kiple, Kenneth F. (ed. ). The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Hamilton AV, Hardy AV (March 1950). â€Å"The brucella ring test; its potential value in the control of brucellosis† (PDF). Am J Public Health Nations Health (3): 321–3. Woods, Lt Col Jon B. ed. ) (April 2005) (PDF). USAMRIID’s Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook (6th ed. ). Fort Detrick, Maryland: U. S. Army Medical Institute of Infectious Diseases. p. 53 Ettinger, Stephen J. ; Feldman, Edward C. (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine (4th ed. ). W. B. Saunders Company Brucellosis (Brucella abortus) AKA: Bangs Disease Cody Richardson Department of Biology Montana Tech of the University of Montana Date: 4/24/2010 Cody Richardson Montana Tech Butte, MT (406) 461-2544 [email  protected] edu